Religion and philosophy in China
From a religious point of view, Chinese civilization has always been characterized
by its eclecticism, that is, Chinese people have been accumulating different philosophical
and religious concepts throughout the centuries without any need to abandon the
ones that existed previously. Hence, this eclecticism has led to an amalgam of
different philosophical and religious concepts from different sources (Confucianism,
Taoism, Buddhism, Chinese cosmology, etc.), which in China is known as popular
religion.
Historical Context
The main schools of thought that have influenced China so profoundly
such as Confucianism or Taoism, they first appeared and developed during the
second half part of the long-lasting Zhou dynasty. Historians usually split
this period into two other periods: Spring and Autumn period (chunqiu 春秋 722-481 BC) and Warring States
period (zhanguo 战国 481-221 BC).
For many centuries the Zhou dynasty kings had achieved to maintain
order, peace and harmony in their government that was composed of different
feudal states which were loyal to the central power of the Zhou family. Zhou
family, who had overcome the Shang dynasty and seized power, created a new
concept which justified the usurpation of power, the concept of the Mandate of
Heaven (Tianming 天命 ). According to the Mandate of Heaven, a despotic dynasty which hadn’t
run the State properly and had been cruel to people, could lose the favour of
Heaven and be overthrown. This loss of power could be preceded by certain signs
that announced a change of dynasty such as natural disasters (droughts, floods,
earthquakes), unproductive harvest seasons that followed periods of hunger,
which in turn led to popular rebellions which finally overthrew the reigning
dynasty.
The Hundred Schools of Thought or Zhuzi
baijia 诸子百家 appeared at the end of the Spring
and Autumn period as a response to the political crisis that was suffering
China in that period. The alliances that ancient sage Zhou kings had once
forged had brought centuries of prosperity, peace and harmony in society.
However, in the Spring and Autumn
period this ancient loyalties and alliances began to crumble progressively
until it led to a permanent state of war between neighbouring states which
fought for the sake of usurping the territories and resources of the other states
(Warring States period).
Among all the schools of thought that appeared in the Spring and Autumn period, only a tiny
portion of them survived (Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, Mohism…). The fact
that the Hundred Schools of Thought appeared was due to the fact that new
answers and solutions were needed to deal this the problems of that period,
specially stressing the relation between men and the Cosmos (Taoism); the
relation of men, family, monarch and ancestral traditions (Confucianism) or men
and their relation with the State and its laws (Legalism).
Confucianism
Confucianism, which in China is called rujia 儒家, was the main ideology of imperial China since the instauration of the Han dynasty in 206 BC. Confucius and his
disciples strongly supported the model of government created by the founder
kings of the Zhou dynasty. The Mandate of Heaven (Tianming天命) was the main core of this
model of government which was structured like a big family, that is, it was a
hierarchical pyramid structure of family lineages on the top of which there was
the monarch or Son of Heaven (Tianzi天子). In this kind of social and political organization, the cult of
ancestors was really important because it was thanks to the ancestors power had
been transmitting generation after generation throughout the centuries. The
monarch had to worship his royal ancestors in the same way as the male members
of each family had to worship their respective ancestors. The cult of ancestors
is an ancient tradition that probably dates back from the origins of the
Chinese civilization which nowadays is still practiced, especially in rural
areas. Hence, we could assert that the cult of ancestors is the true and
original religion of Chinese people, though many elements from different
sources (Taoism, Buddhism, etc) have also been incorporated to this cult throughout
the centuries.
Confucius
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| Confucius 孔子 |
Confucius or Kong Zi 孔子 (as known by Chinese people) was a man who
lived between the 6th and 5th Centuries BC. He was probably
contemporary with Siddharta Gautama (Buddha) and Socrates. Confucius was born
in the small kingdom of Lu, situated in the present day province of Shandong. When
he was very young, Confucius already had a great knowledge of Chinese Classic
Books and he had a growing interest in Chinese ancient rites.
Confucius, who lived in the Spring
and Autumn period, was deeply upset because of the political crisis of his
country and hence he believed that it was necessary to regain the morality and
traditions of the past. Confucius compiled all the precepts and rituals of the
past because he considered that Chinese remote antiquity was a golden age in
which its sage kings had governed properly. Confucius thought that it was necessary
to emulate the example of the ancient kings’ rule.
Confucius never invented any philosophical or political theory but he
recompiled and spread the traditions of ancient Chinese times which he
considered to be magnificent. In fact Confucius said about himself that he had
never invented anything, his only wish was to transmit the ancient traditions
that were written on the Chinese Classical Books.
VII-1 Confucius said, “I transmit but do not innovate randomly. I am so
faithful to and so fond of ancient culture that privately, I compare myself to
Lao Zi and Peng Zu.”
(Analects of Confucius)
Confucius said that the kings of his time acted out of self-interest and
didn’t care about the welfare of society as the ancient kings did. According to
what Confucius said, these ancient sage kings had benevolence 仁 (pronounced ren). This term is the core value of
Confucianism and this is precisely what Confucius urged everyone to pay
attention to. The word ren expresses
the virtue of fulfil one’s moral duties with the rest of society. In fact, if
we analyze the character 仁 (radical : person 亻and number two 二) it expresses quite clearly the meaning of this word,
that men are not alone in society and hence the importance of people behaving
properly. According to Confucius’ teachings, the proper behaviour was that
people’s conducts fitted the ancient rituals (good conducts for life in
society) which were written in the ancient Chinese Canons. When people are
benevolent, life in society is harmonious, people feel empathy for each other
and they respect each other.
VI-30 Zi Gong asked, “What do you think of one who can bring bountiful
benefits and better life to all the people? Is he benevolent?”
Confucius answered, “Far more than benevolent, he would be a sage for
whom Yao and Shun (two ancient sages) would be no match. A benevolent man is
one who helps others establish what he himself wishes to establish, helps
others achieve something he wishes to achieve. To be capable of treating others
as one would be treated oneself is the best way to be benevolent.”
XII-2 Zhong Gong asked what benevolence was. Confucius said, “Deal with
your work as earnestly and conscientiously as you receive a distinguished
guest; call up the common people for corvée labour as cautiously as if you were
at a sacrificial ceremony; never impose upon others what you dislike yourself.
By so doing, you will cause no resentment anywhere you go.” Zhong Gong said, “I
will follow what you have said even though I am not gifted.”
(Analects of Confucius)
Because of the fact that Confucius lived in a time of profound lack of
unity and military confrontation between the different Chinese states, he
decided to go from court to court struggling to teach monarchs and influential
people, urging them on the good conducts of people and good government.
However, Confucius never succeeded in his dream of pacifying his country and
convincing the rulers of his time to govern according to the rule of the
ancient sage kings. Hence, he decided to offer his services as a teacher of
anyone who wished to learn from him. Among his disciples there were rich and
noble men as well as poor and humble men, but Confucius never made any distinctions
because he was in favour of an education without any distinction of social
classes. In fact, Confucius firmly believed that belonging to nobility wasn’t
any guarantee of being a gentleman or a junzi
君子. According to Confucius, a junzi was a man who didn’t act out of
self-interest, but someone whose life was guided by a determined moral and
ethic rectitude. A junzi was a
virtuous and benevolent man and this condition wasn’t inborn, people who wanted
to achieve it had to work hard at it, and had to study the Chinese Classic
Books and put into practice the teachings that were written in there, because those
books accumulated all the wisdom of the ancient kings.
IV-10 Confucius said, “In dealing with the world, there are no definite
rules as to how things should be done. A gentleman simply does things according
to the actual situation.”
IV-11 Confucius said, “While the gentleman cherishes virtue, the petty
man cherishes his native place; while the gentleman cherishes the law, the
petty man cherishes his self interests.”
IV-12 Confucius said, “One will incur ill will if one does things to
one’s own interest.”
IV-16 Confucius said, “The gentleman sees righteousness; the petty man
sees profit.”
VII-37 Confucius said, “A gentleman is always broad-minded while a petty
man is always full of anxiety.”
XIII-26 Confucius said, “A gentleman always keeps even-tempered without
being arrogant while a petty man is arrogant without being even-tempered”.
(Analects of Confucius)
According to Confucius, family was the most important thing in society
and was the perfect form of government. In
the same way a father loves his son, and the son loves, respects and obeys his
father (filial piety); a ruler and his subjects should behave in the same way,
that is, if a ruler was benevolent to his subjects and provided them welfare,
his subjects would benerate him and obey him. In short, Confucius believed that
the state was just an extension of the family and, therefore, if all families practiced
the filial piety, its resulting benefits would also reach the Govern.
II-20 Ji kangzi (Jisun Fei, then a minister of Lu) asked, “What can I do
to make the people respect and be loyal to their superiors and try their best
in service?” Confucius said, “Be upright in their presence, and they will hold
you in respect; be filial and benevolent, and they will be loyal to you; use
the righteous and instruct the unqualified, and they will try their best in
service.”
II-21 Someone asked Confucius, “Why don’t you participate in government?”
Confucius answered, “In The Book of Historical Documents, we read, `Be filial
to your parents and love your brothers.´ If I am able to influence government
by spreading this idea, then I am actually involved in government. What is
meant by participating in government if you think what I am doing has nothing
to do with government?”
(Analects of Confucius)
Confucius thought that a good government could only be achieved if
everyone accepted his social rank within society acting and behaving in
accordance with his social position.
XII- 12 The Duke Jing [Ching] of Qi {Chi], asked
Confucius about government.
Confucius replied, 'There is government, when the
prince is prince, and the minister is minister; when the father is father, and
the son is son.'
'Good!' said the duke; 'if, indeed; the prince be not
prince, the minister not minister, the father not father, and the son not son,
although I have my revenue, can I enjoy it?'
(Analects of Confucius)
What Confucius said in this last paragraph is that if nobody fulfilled
his function within society and government in a proper way, no matter if there
was plenty of resources in the state, many people wouldn’t have access to them because
of the greed of others who would take away what doesn’t belong to them.
Confucius never focused much attention on the metaphysical problems of
life. His only wish was that men’s lives reached a high degree of perfection
within family, society and government. In fact, in one of the chapters of the
Analects, Confucis is asked about death and spirtits by one of his disciples,
but Confucius says:
XI-12- Ji Lu asked about serving
the spirits of the dead. The Master said, “While you are not able to serve men,
how can you serve their spirits?” Chi Lu added, “I venture to ask about death?”
He was answered, “While you do not know life, how can you know about death?”
(Analects of Confucius)
Confucius didn’t focus his attention on the good or evil nature of men
either, that is to say, if men tended to be good or evil in an inborn or
natural way. However, two of his most brilliant disciples, Mencius (Meng Zi)
and Xun Zi, focused their attention on these kind of matters and they had two
opposed opinions. Mencius who was very optimist about the nature of mankind
thought that men were good by nature. Xun Zi, on the other hand, was very
pessimist or realistic and believed that men were evil by nature, hence the
importance to educate them in order to lead them in the right direction.
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